Chefs Are Helping Hungry Voters Waiting in Line at the Polls

In this unusual election season, airwaves and inboxes and newsfeeds are jam-packed with images of snaking lines at the polls, discussions of mail-in ballots, and endless back-and-forths about the relative virtues of in-person versus absentee voting. Almost everyone agrees that casting a ballot in the United States shouldn’t be so difficult or so complicated. And one intrepid group of cooks and chefs has decided to roll up its collective sleeve and do something to ease the waits of those standing in line. Chefs For The Polls is the brainchild of the renowned chef José Andrés whose World Central Kitchen has fed people everywhere from Puerto Rico after Hurricanes Maria and Laura and California during the ongoing wildfires. But wait a minute, aren’t havoc-creating storms and out-of-control fires a far cry from the everyday American business of voting?

Nathan Mook, CEO of World Central Kitchen understands the question, agreeing that it was a bit of a leap from offering humanitarian relief in the face of natural disasters to bringing food to polling sites in cities such as Chicago and Atlanta and Louisville. “What is a disaster relief organization that’s on the front lines of earthquakes and hurricanes doing involved with elections in the U.S.?” asks Mook.

But, he explains, “We had a shift in our thinking about the role World Central Kitchen can play in situations that might not on the surface be as obvious as a hurricane. We were thinking, ‘Nobody should stand in line for this many hours.’ And wondering, ‘Is there something we can do?’”

Read our story: "José Andrés' Generous Helping of Humanity"

And indeed there was. Because the restaurant industry has been so hard-hit by the coronavirus pandemic—especially Mom and Pop places, food trucks, small catering outfits—Mook and Andrés hit on an elegant solution: They raised money from donors to underwrite the purchase of food locally in each city—tacos in Milwaukee, barbecue in Atlanta, cupcakes in Houston, empanadas in Portland, burritos in L.A. Those vendors would offer their particular specialty to people waiting in line at polling places in their city.

The new initiative’s tryout came in June during the Democratic primary in Louisville, Kentucky, where just one polling place was allotted for 600,000 people. “We didn’t know what to expect,” remembers Mook. “We were working with chef Ed Lee who had been doing a lot of work during the pandemic to support the industry. We got a few food trucks, and Ed was there cooking burgers. It was very successful—a nice way to reach families that need food. So we thought, ‘Let’s see what we can do around the country.’”

Chef José Andrés, recipient of the 2019 Julia Child Award, donated a number of defining items from his humanitarian efforts around the globe to the Smithsonian's American History Museum. The collection, which was on view temporarily last year, includes his stockpot, a stirring paddle and a vest he wore while preparing meals in Puerto Rico after Hurricane Maria.

(NMAH)

Andrés, the high-profile public face of both Chefs for the Polls and World Central Kitchen, is passionate about voting in America, notwithstanding that he was born in Spain during the Franco regime. Famous for television shows and his Washington, D.C., restaurants Jaleo and Minibar, he broke new (and delicious) ground last year when he opened the ambitious Mercado Little Spain in New York’s sprawling Hudson Yards development. Andrés, who won the prestigious Julia Child Award in 2019, says he wanted to give something back to his adopted country during this turbulent election cycle.

“We created Chefs for the Polls to make sure that every American—we the people, Republicans and Democrats, people waiting on line for long hours for different reasons—have the right to a plate of food and water,” Andrés explained to late night television host Trevor Noah in October, adding that in many states, “Men and women, especially in poor neighborhoods, [are] waiting for 3, 4, 12 hours. This should not be happening in America. I’m only trying to make sure every American has the possibility to vote. And bringing food and water to them as they wait in line we believe is the least we can do.”

“You may be a Republican, you may be a Democrat, but let’s face it,” he told Noah, “we are in the middle of the biggest pandemic that we’ve experienced over a hundred years. We need to protect every single American and the very simple act of voting.”

Paula Johnson, curator of food history at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History, sees Andrés in the context of the growing movement for food justice, the theme of the Smithsonian’s recent Food History Weekend. “José Andrés is a passionate, tireless, and incredibly effective advocate for food justice,” she says, adding that Andrés “takes action to ensure that individuals and communities have access to healthy, safe and nutritious food.”

As the Covid-19 pandemic continues to threaten vulnerable communities, World Central Kitchen is working with restaurants and kitchens to "get meals to those who need them most."

(World Central Kitchen/WCK.org)

One result of Andrés’ very effective advocacy is that Chefs For The Polls now has more than 50 restaurants, food trucks and chefs as partners, bringing food that might be a voter’s lunch, dinner or snack to polling places in more than 25 cities. The organization has teamed with Michelle Obama’s When We All Vote and LeBron James’ More Than a Vote, and on Early Voting Day, which was Saturday, October 24, Chefs For The Polls brought nourishment to polling sites in more than 20 states.

“To give is a great feeling,” says Dan Raskin, the fourth generation of his family to run Chicago’s Manny’s Deli. It’s just one of the many small restaurants participating in Chefs For the Polls, and like others, it had been struggling during the pandemic. “It was pretty desolate downtown,” notes Raskin. “We connected with World Central Kitchen and started delivering our food to different neighborhoods. The thing to me that was best about this was not just providing the meals to people but supporting the businesses that are keeping people working in Chicago. So when they came to us and said, ‘We have another program.’ Without hesitation, I said, ‘Of course!’”

Raskin not only offered his Jewish delicatessen’s classic corned beef sandwiches but also turkey sandwiches and a vegetarian version made with marinated mushrooms—something for everyone. Given the long lines to vote, “most people eat the food right away,” says Raskin, but some take it home to savor later. “It’s important to support everybody. One of the things I liked about this: It’s not based on who you’re voting for. It brings the community together.”

And while Chefs For The Polls can’t help shorten the lines—or put an end to the snow or rain or heat bedeviling those waiting hours to cast their ballots—it can ease the wait by putting a little sustenance in voters’ bellies.

#History | https://sciencespies.com/history/chefs-are-helping-hungry-voters-waiting-in-line-at-the-polls/

Researchers decipher the secret ingredients of ancient Egyptian ink

An analysis of 12 ancient papyrus fragments has revealed some surprising details about how the Egyptians mixed their red and black ink – findings which could give us a lot more insight into how the earliest writers managed to get their words down on the page.

We know that ancient Egyptians were using inks to write at least as far back as 3200 BCE. However, the samples studied in this case were dated to 100-200 CE and originally collected from the famous Tebtunis temple library – the only large-scale institutional library known to have survived from the period.

Using a variety of synchrotron radiation techniques, including the use of high-powered X-rays to analyse microscopic samples, the researchers revealed the elemental, molecular, and structural composition of the inks in unprecedented detail.

"By applying 21st century, state-of-the-art technology to reveal the hidden secrets of ancient ink technology, we are contributing to the unveiling of the origin of writing practices," says physicist Marine Cotte from the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in France.

The red inks, typically used to highlight headings, instructions, or keywords, were most likely coloured by the natural pigment ochre, the researchers say – traces of iron, aluminium, and hematite point to this being the case.

More intriguing was the discovery of lead-based compounds in both the black and the red inks, without any of the traditional lead-based pigments used for colouring. This suggests the lead was added for technical purposes.

"Lead-based driers prevent the binder from spreading too much, when ink or paint is applied on the surface of paper or papyrus," the team writes in their study.

"Indeed, in the present case, lead forms an invisible halo surrounding the ochre particles."

As well as explaining how the ancient Egyptians kept their papyrus smudge-free, it also suggests some pretty specialised ink manufacturing techniques. It's likely that the temple priests who wrote using this ink weren't the ones who were originally mixing it.

"The fact that the lead was not added as a pigment but as a drier infers that the ink had quite a complex recipe and could not be made by just anyone," says Egyptologist Thomas Christiansen, from the University of Copenhagen in Denmark.

"We hypothesise that there were workshops specialised in preparing inks."

X-ray fluorescence maps showing iron (red) and lead (blue) in the red ink. (The Papyrus Carlsberg Collection/ESRF)

Interestingly enough, the preparation of red ink inside a workshop has also been mentioned in a Greek document dated to the third century CE, backing up the idea of specialised ink mixing in Egypt and across the Mediterranean.

This technique of using lead as a drying agent was also adopted in 15th century Europe as oil paintings began to appear – but it would seem that the ancient Egyptians discovered the trick at least 1,400 years earlier.

The researchers are planning more tests and different kinds of analysis, but what they've found so far is already fascinating – another example of how modern-day scientific instruments can unlock even more secrets from the past, even down to coloured ink.

"The advanced synchrotron-based microanalyses have provided us with invaluable knowledge of the preparation and composition of red and black inks in ancient Egypt and Rome 2,000 years ago," says Christiansen.

The research has been published in PNAS.

#Humans | https://sciencespies.com/humans/researchers-decipher-the-secret-ingredients-of-ancient-egyptian-ink/

The mystery of the platypus deepens with the discovery of its biofluorescent fur

Scientists are seeing the Australian platypus in a whole new light. Under an ultraviolet lamp, this bizarre-looking creature appears even more peculiar than normal, glowing a soft, greenish-blue hue instead of the typical brown we're used to seeing.

The recent discovery has not been found in any other monotreme species – a primitive type of mammal – and it has scientists wondering: Have we been overlooking an ancient world of fluorescent fur?

"Biofluorescence has now been observed in placental New World flying squirrels, marsupial New World opossums, and the monotreme platypus of Australia and Tasmania," the authors write.

"These taxa, inhabiting three continents and a diverse array of ecosystems, represent the major lineages of Mammalia."

(Anich et al., Mammalia, 2020)

Over the centuries, biofluorescence has been reported in various plants, fungi, fruits, flowers, insects, and birds. It's only recently, however, that scientists have begun to actively track down examples in the animal kingdom. Many discoveries to date were simply happenstance. 

In 2015, for instance, scientists chanced upon the first fluorescent sea turtle while looking for glowing coral. Two years later, the first fluorescent frog was found unexpectedly, and the team advised others to "start carrying a UV flashlight to the field".

Among mammals, the first example of biofluorescence was reported in 1983 in the Virginia opossum, the only marsupial in North America. But it wasn't until 2017, and by complete accident, that researchers uncovered something similar in North America's flying squirrels (Glaucomys), which are categorized as placental mammals.

While conducting a night survey of lichens, researchers were amazed to turn their LED torch on a bright, bubble-gum pink flying squirrel.

One of the only things the opossum and squirrel share in common is their nocturnal lifestyles. This is also when UV light is at its strongest, which suggests the trait might be common among mammals most active at night, dawn, or dusk.

Like flying squirrels and opossums in North America, platypuses in Australia are also active at night. However, they are separated from these other animals by some 150 million years of evolution.

Australia's hidden glows

Despite being home to some of the most primitive mammals on Earth, relatively little attention has been paid to biofluorescence in Australia's animals. But if they also have glowing fur, the trait might be far more ancient and potentially more common among mammals than we thought.

"It was a mix of serendipity and curiosity that led us to shine a UV light on the platypuses at the Field Museum," recalls biologist Paula Spaeth Anich from Northland College. 

"But we were also interested in seeing how deep in the mammalian tree the trait of biofluorescent fur went."

Researchers began with two stuffed museum specimens, a male and a female collected in Tasmania. These creatures' fur was found to absorb short UV wavelengths and then emit visible light, fluorescing green or cyan. 

Examining another platypus specimen collected from New South Wales, researchers found the same thing.

"The pelage of this specimen, which was uniformly brown under visible light, also biofluoresced green under UV light," the authors write.

To their knowledge, the team says this is the first time biofluorescence has been reported in monotremes. However, in June of this year, a member of The Queensland Mycological Society claimed to have discovered a road-killed platypus with a similar glow.

"The fur of the platypus mostly appeared dark/purple as expected under the UV light, but some of it turned moss green, although not brightly so," writes Linda Reinhold in the society's non-peer-reviewed newsletter.

Reinhold also found two northern brown bandicoots on the road with fluorescent pink fur, and she did manage to snap those.

Lighting up the dark

It's still too early to say what advantage this trait might give nocturnal mammals – our sample sizes are too small – although scientists have a few ideas.

In 2017, when the flying squirrels were discovered with biofluorescent fur, some thought it might have to do with camouflage since many trees are covered in biofluorescent moss and lichen.

However, the bandicoots found by Reinhold are ground-dwelling mammals, and their fluorescence may make them stand out.

Standing out might be an advantage, depending on the circumstances. For some birds, their biofluorescent feathers play a part in mating rituals. Fish use the trait to communicate among themselves.

Yet in the platypus, both the male and female specimens showed similar fluorescence, suggesting the trait isn't sexually dimorphic. What's more, because the platypus usually swims with its eyes closed, the glow in its fur probably isn't there to communicate with others of its kind.

Instead, researchers think it might help camouflage the platypus from other UV-sensitive nocturnal predators by absorbing UV light instead of reflecting it.

Further study is needed in the wild before we can say for sure what is going on. We don't even know how the biofluorescence of this fur even works, and the benefits of this trait might vary from species to species.

Still, the fact that this strange glow exists across the fur of egg-laying monotremes, marsupials, and placental mammals suggests it has deep roots.

If nothing else, the discovery is a nice reminder of our sheer ignorance.

The study was published in Mammalia.

#Nature | https://sciencespies.com/nature/the-mystery-of-the-platypus-deepens-with-the-discovery-of-its-biofluorescent-fur/

Virgin Orbit to take stake in Sky and Space Global

WASHINGTON — Virgin Orbit plans to invest in Sky and Space Global (SAS), the financially troubled satellite constellation company, and partner with it on launch and satellite services.

In an Oct. 28 statement, SAS said that Virgin Orbit will take a stake of no less than 14.7% in the company by purchasing shares in the company at a price of $0.20 Australian ($0.14) each. Virgin Orbit will also receive options to purchase seven million additional shares at $0.40 each over the next three years, and appoint an observer to the SAS board of directors.

The company didn’t disclose the size of the investment Virgin Orbit was making, but a separate filing with the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX) stock market the same day disclosed that SAS planned to sell 11 million shares at $0.20, or $2.2 million Australian.

In exchange for the investment, the companies will cancel a previous launch agreement valued at $55 million Australian. SAS will sign a three-year “launch services and consulting agreement” with Virgin Orbit for $1 million per year. The two companies will also agree to promote each other’s services.

“We are delighted to have Virgin Orbit as a partner and shareholder as we progress the recapitalization of the business and short-term commercialization of our nanosatellite communications technology,” Xavier Kris, chairman of SAS, said in the statement.

SAS entered voluntary administration, a form of bankruptcy protection, in Australia in April after it failed to raise funding. Kris joined the company in July as part of the reorganization of the company.

SAS proposed to launch a constellation of 200 cubesats to provide communications services, but struggled to raise funding after launching an initial three satellites in 2017. SAS signed a contract with Danish smallsat manufacturer Gomspace to build its constellation, but missed payments led Gomspace to consider the contract canceled.

Virgin Orbit confirmed it’s planning to invest in SAS to help it recapitalize, but noted that the agreement has yet to be finalized.

“Sky and Space Global’s new management team has offered to grant equity and options to Virgin Orbit as a component of a new agreement that best suits their ongoing recapitalization efforts,” Stephen Eisele, vice president of business development at Virgin Orbit, said in a statement to SpaceNews. “There are a few conditions still to be met as part of that new agreement process, but we are excited to accommodate our customers with a plan that works well for their context and their requirements.”

Eisele added that Virgin Orbit expects this investment will allow SAS to eventually launch its satellites with the company. “We are excited about SAS’s mission and team, and we look forward to providing launch services for their satellites onboard LauncherOne.”

#Space | https://sciencespies.com/space/virgin-orbit-to-take-stake-in-sky-and-space-global/

To Prevent Future Pandemics, Protect Nature

Yesterday, an international group of scientists issued a warning: Without major steps to protect Earth's land and wildlife, Covid-19 won't be the last pandemic in our lifetimes. A new report chronicles how human activities, like habitat destruction and wildlife trade, increase the likelihood that humans are exposed to new diseases, reports Sarah Gibbens for National Geographic.

The report, compiled by 22 experts and citing more than 600 studies, was published yesterday by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). It details how the human-driven destruction of the planet has increased the risk of contracting new diseases, and it provides recommendations for how to prevent future outbreaks.

The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 likely originated in an animal, but which species and where will be hard to confirm, reported David Cyranoski for Nature in June. No matter the origin, it's not the only deadly virus that's jumped from wildlife to humans. Humans contracted HIV from chimps, which likely got it from other monkeys; wild and domesticated birds have been targeted a culprits of the 1918 flu pandemic; and Nipah virus was transmitted from fruit bats to domesticated animals to humans.

The Covid-19 pandemic is the sixth pandemic since the influenza outbreak in 1918, all of which have been "entirely driven by human activities," the IPBES panel says in a press release.

"The risk of pandemics is increasing rapidly, with more than five new diseases emerging in people every year, any one of which has the potential to become pandemic," the report states. It suggests that 70 percent of emerging diseases are zoonotic, meaning they can be transmissible from non-human animals to humans. Up to 580,000 undiscovered viruses carried by animals have the potential to infect humans, reports Brian Kahn for Gizmodo.

Ecosystems, like forests, have high levels of biodiversity, and with that abundance of life comes an abundance of diseases. When these places are destroyed, wildlife are exposed to humans at the edges of their habitat. Or they may expand their territories into urban areas, increasing the likelihood of contact with humans.

Deforestation is largely driven by the world's demand for beef. In regions like the Brazilian Amazon, forests are cleared to create fields for cattle to graze. If cattle contract a zoonotic disease, they can act as intermediaries between wildlife and humans by transmitting the disease to the people they come in close contact with, reports National Geographic.

Climate change also fuels disease emergence. Rising temperatures are causing animals to migrate out of their natural ranges and towards the poles, reports Gizmodo, pushing them into new regions and spreading the diseases they carry with them.

"There is no great mystery about the cause of the Covid-19 pandemic—or any modern pandemic," Peter Daszak, president of the Ecohealth Alliance and chair of the IPBES workshop, says in the press release. "The same human activities that drive climate change and biodiversity loss also drive pandemic risk though their impacts on our agriculture."

"Clearly, in the face of Covid-19, with more than one million human deaths, and huge economic impacts, [the current] reactive approach is inadequate," Daszak tells Damian Carrington for The Guardian. "There is enough science that shows a way forward and would involve transformative change that rethinks our relationship with nature."

To be proactive about the next pandemic, the report outlines a set of initiatives that governments across the globe should adapt. It includes: establishing an international council specializing in pandemic prevention; taking a one-health approach to pandemic preparedness; considering health impacts in development projects; implementing taxes on meat consumption and other high-risk activities; listing high disease-risk species (such as bats and primates) as illegal in the wildlife trade; cracking down on the $100 billion a year wildlife trade altogether; and valuing and incorporating Indigenous knowledge and concerns in pandemic prevention initiatives.

"I think the really important thing is understanding the scale at which we have to operate here," Hannah tells National Geographic. "This isn’t about pumping things up a notch; this is about taking things to a level they’ve never been taken before."

IPBES' proposed strategy estimates that it would cost between $40 and $58 million per year to adapt these recommendations, but they say it would easily outweigh the costs of pandemics. A recent study calculates that the Covid-19 pandemic has costed the United States alone $16 trillion—and counting—so far.

"This is classic public health—an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure," Daszak tells The Guardian.

#News | https://sciencespies.com/news/to-prevent-future-pandemics-protect-nature/

Russian Vessel Suspected Of Illegal Fishing In Antarctic Waters Will Face No Consequences

Floating sea ice in Antarctica's Ross Sea near Cape Royds. The Ross Sea was established as a marine ... [+] protected area (MPA) in 2017.

Liz Allen

Yesterday, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Living Resources (CCAMLR) concluded its 39th annual meeting. While the Commission’s mandate includes protecting Antarctic wildlife and establishing marine protected areas (MPAs), discussions of these protections were limited during this year’s virtual meeting.

In addition to foregoing the opportunity to enact the largest conservation action in human history, CCAMLR was unable to reach a consensus on the fate of a Russian vessel, the F/V Palmer, suspected of fishing illegally in the protected waters of Antarctica’s Ross Sea.

Evidence of the illegal fishing was presented to the Commission by the New Zealand government. Unfortunately, the Commission, which includes representation from Russia, could not agree to add the vessel to their list of illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) vessels. Instead, the vessel will be allowed to continue to fish this season without consequence. While CCAMLR is seen as a leader in combatting illegal fishing around Antarctica, the lack of consequences for Russia’s F/V Palmer came as a huge disappointment to many advocates for Antarctica’s protection.

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“Although we’re glad the meeting took place virtually, the limited agenda was troubling and resulted in yet another year passing when CCAMLR failed to address climate change impacts or establish a network of marine protected areas in its waters,” explains Claire Christian, executive director of the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC). “Even worse, CCAMLR is going backwards on combatting IUU fishing by allowing the Palmer to continue to fish.”

Emperor and adelie penguins gathered at the edge of the sea ice in the Ross Sea, near Cape Royds.

Liz Allen

Andrea Kavanagh, director of Antarctic and Southern Ocean work at The Pew Charitable Trusts, shares ASOC’s sentiments. “Overall, the failure of global leadership to protect this critical ecosystem is deeply concerning. On the 200th anniversary of the discovery of Antarctica and on the eve of the 60th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty going into force—an agreement reached at the height of the Cold War to protect an entire continent—establishing new marine protected areas in the Southern Ocean should have been an easy decision.”

Fortunately, the proposed expansion of marine protected areas in Antarctica’s Southern Ocean received strong support from several countries represented at the meeting. Australia and Uruguay agreed to co-sponsor the Weddell Sea MPA, while Norway and Uruguay joined the countries proposing an MPA in East Antarctica. In addition, most countries represented at the meeting, including Korea and Brazil, agreed to join a statement put forward by the European Union endorsing the importance of MPA designations for the protection of Antarctica’s waters.

Now, advocates of Antarctica’s protection have their sights set on establishing a network of MPAs around the continent at the 2021 meeting.

“We are grateful to MPA proponent countries who have driven efforts in establishing a network of marine protected areas in the Southern Ocean and call on their high-level diplomacy to secure designations in 2021,” says Kavanagh. “We remain confident that CCAMLR can achieve this major milestone for conservation next year and look forward to adding a new Antarctic anniversary worth celebrating for years to come.”

#News | https://sciencespies.com/news/russian-vessel-suspected-of-illegal-fishing-in-antarctic-waters-will-face-no-consequences/

50-million-year-old foot fossil may belong to the largest bird that ever flew

Earth's past has served up some super-sized beasties – from mega sharks to giant wombats. Birds are no exception. Palaeontologists have re-discovered a fossil of one of the largest flying avians ever found, tucked away safely in an old museum collection.

"I love going to collections and just finding treasures there," University of California palaeontologist Peter Kloess said.

"Somebody has called me a museum rat, and I take that as a badge of honour. I love scurrying around, finding things that people overlook."

This useful habit led Kloess to search the University of California Museum of Palaeontology collections, where he re-discovered the fossil fragments of an ancient bird, originally retrieved from Seymour Island off the Antarctic Peninsula in the 1980s.

A new analysis of one of the island's sites suggests that the fossil of what was once parts of the bird's foot is actually 10 million years older than initially thought.

It belongs to a 6-metre-winged giant (19 feet), with a bony beak that was jaggedly full of fearsome teeth. This ancient seabird, a type of pelagornithid, soared over southern oceans, much like the albatross of today, for at least 10 million years. 

The foot fossil represents the largest known specimen of pelagornithids, which are thought to approach the limit of how big birds can get and still manage to fly. This group emerged to ride sky currents during the Eocene, 60 million years ago, as new life flourished after the mass extinction event that knocked off non-avian dinosaurs. 

"Birds evolved to a truly gigantic size relatively quickly after the extinction of the dinosaurs and ruled over the oceans for millions of years," said Kloess.

Only extinct teratorns, ancient vulture relatives, come close to the giant pelagornithid in size, but their wingspan only reached about 4 metres (12 feet). They evolved 40 million years after the pelagornithids went extinct.

Kloess and team also described a 40-million-year-old fossil of a smaller pelagornithid's lower jaw that came from a different site on Seymour Island. They calculated it belonged to a skull up to 60 centimeters (2 feet) long.

Fragment of fossilised pelagornithid jaw. (Peter Kloess/UC Berkeley)

Its teeth-like beak protrusions helped the pelagornithids snatch slippery squirming prey from the water. Back then, Antarctica was a relatively toasty warm playground for sloth, marsupial, and penguin ancestors, which would have been a marvel to see. 

But "these bony-toothed birds would have been formidable predators that evolved to be at the top of their ecosystem," said palaeontologist Thomas Stidham from the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing.

So, as incredible as this world of giant feathered sky beings sounds, it's probably for the best that we arrived on the scene after they were gone.

This research was published in Scientific Reports.

#Nature | https://sciencespies.com/nature/50-million-year-old-foot-fossil-may-belong-to-the-largest-bird-that-ever-flew/

NASA-ESA agreement a milestone in efforts to develop Artemis international partnerships

WASHINGTON — While NASA and the European Space Agency hailed an agreement this week to work together on the lunar Gateway, both agencies have work ahead to establish international cooperation on the overall Artemis program of human lunar exploration.

NASA and ESA announced Oct. 27 that they had signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to cooperate on the lunar Gateway. The MOU extends the existing intergovernmental agreement for the International Space Station to the Gateway, a human-tended outpost in orbit around the moon intended to support crewed missions to the lunar surface.

“This partnership leverages the outstanding cooperation established by the International Space Station as we push forward to the moon,” NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine said in a statement about the agreement. “Gateway will continue to expand NASA’s cooperation with international partners like ESA, ensuring the Artemis program results in the safe and sustainable exploration of the moon after the initial human lunar landing and beyond.”

Under the agreement, ESA will provide for the Gateway a habitation module called I-Hab and a telecommunications and refueling element called the European System Providing Refueling, Infrastructure and Telecommunications (ESPRIT). ESA will also build two additional service modules for the Orion spacecraft.

Those contributions were long planned. ESA secured initial funding for its Gateway contributions at its Space19+ ministerial meeting in November 2019, and awarded contracts for I-Hab and ESPRIT Oct. 14. ESA highlighted its contributions to lunar exploration, including its Gateway work, at an event at the International Astronautical Congress (IAC) Oct. 14 whose participants included Bridenstine.

In return, NASA will provide opportunities for European astronauts to fly to the Gateway. “This MOU marks a critical point in Europe’s trajectory: it confirms we are going forward to the moon, not just in terms of equipment and technology, but also with our people,” Jan Woerner, ESA director general, said in a statement.

The announcement of the MOU did not mention how many European astronauts would fly to the Gateway. NASA spokesperson Gina Anderson said Oct. 28 that the agreement includes three “crew opportunities” to the Gateway, although specific missions and dates for them have not yet been determined. The agreement only addresses flights to the Gateway, she added, and not missions to the lunar surface.

Neither NASA nor ESA have released the text of the MOU. Anderson said the MOU “is an important and unique agreement that is part of a package of agreements with our other intended Gateway partners,” notably Canada and Japan, which are still being negotiated. “Upon completion of the agreements with Canada and Japan, NASA plans to release the three MOUs as a package,” she said.

Both Canada and Japan have stated their intent to participate in the Gateway. The Canadian government announced in February 2019 it would build a robotic arm system, called Canadarm3, for the Gateway. The Japanese government signed a cooperative agreement with NASA in July that outlined Japan’s roles in human exploration, including potential contributions to the Gateway.

NASA has not yet finalized the agreements with Canada and Japan, Bridenstine confirmed when asked about it during an Oct. 28 speech at the American Astronautical Society’s Wernher von Braun Memorial Symposium. “I don’t have anything to announce as far as those negotiations,” he said. “Stay tuned, because we’re getting close.”

Bridenstine said that NASA has been in discussions with “every entity that is part of the International Space Station,” which would also include Russia. However, at the IAC Oct. 12, Dmitry Rogozin, director general of the Russian space agency Roscosmos, criticized the Gateway as being “too U.S.-centric” and said that “Russia is likely to refrain from participating in it on a large scale.”

While ESA has signed the MOU with NASA for cooperation on the lunar Gateway, most of its member states have yet to sign on to the Artemis Accords, the principles established by NASA governing participation in the overall program. Three of ESA’s 22 member states — Italy, Luxembourg and the United Kingdom — signed the document at an Oct. 13 ceremony, along with Canada, Japan, Australia and the United Arab Emirates.

The provisions in the Accords about the right to extract and use space resources could be a stumbling block for other ESA members, though. “Those 22 member states have quite different positions on how this should be addressed,” said Sylvie Espinasse, head of ESA’s Washington, DC, office, during an Oct. 27 panel discussion at the von Braun Symposium.

There’s agreement among ESA members on the importance of using lunar resources to support sustainable lunar exploration, but differing view on how resource utilization should be managed. “We cannot ignore the elephant in the room on the challenge of regulation, how we will utilize those resources,” she said.

“ESA will listen carefully” to all its member states, she said, as well as future discussions on space resources at the United Nations’ Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. “And then, as how ESA has always managed at the end, we will find a way to propose to them an exciting package of lunar surface activities and how to contribute to Artemis, and we will find a way to get a legal framework that is satisfactory to all of them.”

#Space | https://sciencespies.com/space/nasa-esa-agreement-a-milestone-in-efforts-to-develop-artemis-international-partnerships/

Scientists in Japan just found a Detailed Record of Earth's Last Magnetic Switcharoo

Every 200,000 to 300,000 years, Earth's magnetic poles reverse. What was once the north pole becomes the south, and vice versa. It's a time of invisible upheaval.

The last reversal was unusual because it was so long ago. For some reason, the poles have remained oriented the way they are now for about three-quarters of a million years. A new study has revealed some of the detail of that reversal.

The study of the Earth's magnetic field is called paleomagnetism. It involves the study of rocks and sediments and sometimes archaeological materials. Rocks that were once molten retain a record of the Earth's magnetic field as they solidified.

The related field of magnetostratigraphy studies the record of geomagnetic reversals that are contained in those rocks. By dating the rocks, researchers can construct a timeline of the Earth's reversals.

The last reversal is named the Matuyama-Brunhes geomagnetic reversal after the co-discoverers: Bernard Brunhes, a French geophysicist, and Motonori Matuyama, a Japanese geophysicist. Over the years since its discovery, researchers have tried to understand exactly when it happened, and also how long it took.

This new study is titled "A full sequence of the Matuyama–Brunhes geomagnetic reversal in the Chiba composite section, Central Japan." The lead author is Yuki Haneda, a project researcher at the National Institute of Polar Research and a postdoctoral research fellow at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology in Japan.

The paper is published in the journal Progress in Earth and Planetary Science.

Lava flows are a reliable indicator of the orientation of Earth's magnetic poles at the time the lava solidified. But what they can't provide is a timeline. They're more like snapshots that freeze a moment in time.

Lava flows are very helpful when it comes to understanding the Earth's magnetic field at the time of solidification. "However, lava sequences cannot provide continuous paleomagnetic records due to the nature of sporadic eruptions," lead author Haneda said in a press release.

A better record can be found in some sediment deposits, which can form over a long period of time. One of these deposits is called the Chiba composite section. It's in Japan, and geophysicists consider it to be a very detailed record of the Matuyama-Brunhes reversal.

"In this study, we collected new samples and conducted paleo- and rock-magnetic analyses of samples from the Chiba composite section, a continuous and expanded marine succession in Central Japan, to reconstruct the full sequence of the Matuyama-Brunhes geomagnetic reversal," Haneda said.

The Chiba composite section is widely considered to contain the most detailed marine sedimentary record of the Matuyama-Brunhes geomagnetic reversal, according to Haneda.

It serves as the international standard for the lower boundary of the Middle Pleistocene Subseries and Chibanian Stage — when Homo sapiens emerged as a species.

The Chiba composite section is notable for its well-preserved pollen and marine micro- and macrofossils. It also contains tephra beds. Tephra is a fragmentary material produced by volcanic eruptions, normally referred to as volcanic ash.

All in all, Chiba provides the most reliable chronostratigraphic framework of the time period around the Brunhes-Matuyama reversal.

What they found goes against what some other studies have uncovered, especially when it comes to how long the reversal took to occur. Some studies suggest it took several thousand years, while another suggested that the reversal was completed in one human lifetime.

The different time estimates depend largely on where on Earth researchers gather their evidence. This study based on the Chiba composite section says it took about 20,000 years, including a 10,000 year period of instability leading up to the reversal.

"Our data is one of the most detailed paleomagnetic record during the Matuyama-Brunhes geomagnetic reversal, offering deep insight into the mechanism of the geomagnetic reversal," Haneda said.

The marine micro-fossils and pollen found in the Chiba composite section also hold clues to the magnetic reversal. The team of researchers is going to investigate fossils and pollen next to try to learn more.

This figure from the study shows the location of the study area on Japan's Boso Peninsula. (Haneda et al., 2020)

The question that looms over Earth's geomagnetic reversals is 'What effect do they have?' That's outside the scope of this study, but it's the focus of other research. 

Some researchers have wondered if magnetic reversals have contributed to climate change. While the evidence is nowhere near complete, some scientists have outlined how reversals might play a role.

In 2006 a team of researchers made a presentation to the American Geophysical Union's Fall Meeting titled "Does the Earth's Magnetic Field Influence Climate?"

When mentioning the accepted causes of climate change on Earth, the team said, "Magnetism has seldom been invoked, and evidence for connections between climate and magnetic field variations have received little attention."

"The most intriguing feature may be recently proposed archaeomagnetic jerks. These seem to correlate with significant climatic events."

Archaeomagnetic jerks are quick changes in the Earth's geomagnetic field that are localized rather than global. While there's only a correlation between them and climate, a causal link might one day be established. Could there also be a causal link between magnetic reversals and climate?

The effect that magnetic reversals have on animals is likewise a fascinating and open question. Many animals undertake long, migratory voyages. Whales, birds, and sea turtles, for example.

And there's evidence that some migratory species rely on Earth's magnetic field to navigate. The phenomenon is called magnetoreception.

How are creatures that rely on magnetoreception affected by geomagnetic reversals?

During a reversal, the magnetic poles not only switch places but the field strength drops. There may also be temporary poles at the equator or even multiple temporary poles. The poles can also wander around, leaving their original position and returning before eventually switching completely.

It's not clear what effect a reversal has on animals. But there's some evidence that solar storms, with all their magnetic activity, can create confusion for migrating whales and may even drive them to beach themselves.

During a reversal, the protective effect of the Earth's magnetic field is reduced. More solar radiation may reach the surface of Earth during a reversal, which could put animals like whales in peril the same way a solar storm might. However, the evidence for this is not clear.

In any case, life on Earth has survived many geomagnetic reversals, and still, life thrives. Modern humans haven't faced one yet, so observing the next one will be very instructive. 

The most likely effect will be on our power and communications systems, including satellites. As the global magnetic field weakens, more of the Sun's radiation can get through. We know from things like the Carrington Event that that scenario can be very damaging. 

While this study can't address all these questions, it does advance our understanding of the previous reversal. 

"Our results provide a detailed and expanded sedimentary record of the M–B geomagnetic reversal and offer valuable new information to further understand the mechanisms and dynamics of geomagnetic reversals," the authors conclude.

This article was originally published by Universe Today. Read the original article.

#Space | https://sciencespies.com/space/scientists-in-japan-just-found-a-detailed-record-of-earths-last-magnetic-switcharoo/

Underground fungal colonies act as aid networks for some older trees, scientists find

Scientists have examined the relationship between forest fungi and mature trees in greater detail than ever before.

Turns out the more fungal colonies they're connected to, the better the trees grow – an important discovery for forest management and climate change response.

Previous research has shown how fungal organisms can support trees at the seedling stage by passing over nutrients and water, and how older trees can support seedlings in the same way via this fungal network. Here, the team wanted to look specifically at the link between fungi and older trees.

Core samples taken from 350 Douglas firs in British Columbia showed that the wider a tree's network – connections to other trees enabled by fungi colonising their roots – the more growth the tree saw year on year. It's not certain that the wider network is causing the extra growth, but it's a strong correlation.

"We found that the more connected an adult tree is, the more it has significant growth advantages, which means the network could really influence large-scale important interactions in the forest, like carbon storage," says ecologist Joseph Birch from the University of Alberta in Canada.

The researchers explain that fungal networks act as a sort of highway for tree resources – and they can even transmit warnings from other trees about insect attacks and other dangers. When certain trees are struggling, and in poor health, other trees can help out.

Another finding from the study was that trees with connections to more varied fungi types also fared better in terms of growth. Apparently, the more diverse the underground support network, the better for these older trees.

Understanding this symbiotic relationship is going to be crucial in protecting forests for the future and keeping them in good health – not only are trees good at soaking up carbon, they also excel at protecting against soil erosion.

"Large trees make up the bulk of the forest, so they drive what the forest is doing," says Birch. "These networks may help them grow more steadily even as conditions become more stressful, and could even help buffer trees against death."

There's plenty more investigation to be done – this study only looked at one type of tree in one part of the world over 16 years, and these sorts of fungal networks are likely to vary from area to area and even year to year. Having more data is always helpful in understanding exactly what's going on in an ecosystem.

Future studies will also need to take a closer look at exactly what nutrients and resources are being passed from fungus to tree root and back again. It's possible that we might find a way of making trees more resistant to the rigours of climate change.

We can thank fungi for helping animal life on Earth get started in the very beginning, and now it seems these fascinating organisms are going to have a crucial role in conserving life on the planet as well.

"Knowing whether fungal networks are operating the same way in other tree species could factor into how we reforest areas after harvesting them, and it could inform how we want to plant trees to preserve these networks," says Birch.

The research has been published in the Journal of Ecology.

#Nature | https://sciencespies.com/nature/underground-fungal-colonies-act-as-aid-networks-for-some-older-trees-scientists-find/

Pentagon creates new office to oversee military space policy

In a memo Oct. 29, Deputy Secretary of Defense David Norquist said the new position will be filled by Justin Johnson, the acting deputy assistant secretary of defense for space policy. 

WASHINGTON — The Defense Department announced Oct. 30 it has established the office of the assistant secretary of defense for space policy, a new post that Congress directed in the 2020 National Defense Authorization Act.

In a memo Oct. 29, Deputy Secretary of Defense David Norquist said the new position will be filled by Justin Johnson, the acting deputy assistant secretary of defense for space policy. 

“The establishment of the assistant secretary of defense for space policy is a change of the civilian oversight of the space enterprise,” Norquist said in the memo. 

A permanent assistant secretary will be nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Gregory Pejic, a special assistant to Norquist, will serve as the principal deputy assistant secretary of defense for space policy until an individual is appointed to the position.

The new position will be responsible for the “overall supervision of DoD policy for space warfighting” and for interagency coordination and international engagement on space policy and strategy, said Norquist’s memo. The assistant secretary for space policy reports to the undersecretary of defense for policy.

Defense analyst Todd Harrison, senior fellow at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, said DoD is implementing legislation that reflects Congress’ interest in making sure there is senior civilian leadership in DoD for space. 

“I think it reflects that fact that space policy is of increasing importance to DoD and warrants an incrementally higher level position within the bureaucracy,” Harrison said. “I wouldn’t expect this change alone to have much effect on policies, but it tilts the balance more in favor of elevating and advancing space policy issues over the long term.”

#Space | https://sciencespies.com/space/pentagon-creates-new-office-to-oversee-military-space-policy/

This 3D-printed tugboat is smaller than a human hair, but it represents so much more

Imagine, if you will, a microscopic submarine, motoring around inside your blood vessels, delivering medicine, or perhaps performing surgery all on its own.

This is the sort of future theoretical physicist Richard Feynman used to fantasise about, and yet today, we're still stuck on the swimming part.

For a vessel at such a tiny scale, the fluid in our blood vessels practically feels like molasses. Recreating a microswimmer with powers akin to those of sperm or bacteria – powerful enough to push through such a thick fluid – has proved quite the challenge.

So far, scientists have built only the simplest of artificial microswimmers, mostly in the shape of rods and spheres. Now, we have reached new heights with microprinting technology, and Benchy the tugboat is the proof.

Why a tugboat? This publicly available 3D model is a commonly used benchmark designed to test and calibrate 3D printers, pushing them to their limits with a variety of shapes and angles.

Now, researchers from Leiden University in the Netherlands have shrunk Benchy down to 30 micrometres – which means if the width of a hair is a three-lane highway, this boat could ride the inside lane.

We may not have little boats riding through our bloodstream anytime soon, but that's beside the point. Achieving this complex structure demonstrates that two-photon polymerisation, the 3D microprinting technique used in the study, can be harnessed to produce truly complex shapes.

Starting with a sphere of photosensitive polymer, the team used this tech to devise increasingly complex microswimmers, some of which can be seen in the image below (the 'starship' in figure b looks quite familiar, too).

"A laser is focused inside a droplet that locally hardens in the focal spot of the laser," Daniela Kraft, senior author of the study, told Gizmodo.

"By moving the laser through the droplet in a controlled way, we can write the swimmer shape that we want."

A spiky sphere, a 'starship', a spiral, a helix, a trimer, and Benchy. (Doherty et al., Soft Matter, 2020)

Benchy itself has a ton of fine details, including several portholes and an open cabin that's particularly tricky for a 3D printer to replicate. 

"Here, the true advantage of using a 3D microprinter can be seen," the authors note in their study.

"It becomes very simple to build complex details and anisotropy into the particles, such as spikey spheres, boats, spaceships, or more conventional shapes like trimers."

The team says their results open the door to studying how the motion of certain microswimmers and their interaction with the environment changes with their shape, allowing us to better understand the mechanisms behind propulsion in biological structures.

The potential of the tech is so immense that it could one day create microswimmers with a wide range of geometries in almost any desired shape.

"Ultimately," the team writes, "[the technology] will allow a greater control and design of the behaviour of synthetic microswimmers, useful for applications in therapeutic diagnostics and drug delivery."

The study was published in Soft Matter.

#Tech | https://sciencespies.com/tech/this-3d-printed-tugboat-is-smaller-than-a-human-hair-but-it-represents-so-much-more/

There could be at least 300 million potentially habitable worlds in the Milky Way

There are many unanswered questions about our place in the Universe. Why are we here? What is the likelihood of our existence? Could there be others like us out there in the galaxy?

One of the numbers that could help us answer these questions is this: How many rocky planets like Earth are orbiting stars like the Sun at a temperate distance amenable to life as we know it? Now, we have an answer, based on data from the retired Kepler space telescope.

It's around 300 million.

That's not necessarily an exact number, but it does give us a rough baseline to work from as we search for potentially life-supporting worlds in our galaxy.

"Kepler already told us there were billions of planets, but now we know a good chunk of those planets might be rocky and habitable," said astronomer Steve Bryson of NASA's Ames Research Center.

"Though this result is far from a final value, and water on a planet's surface is only one of many factors to support life, it's extremely exciting that we calculated these worlds are this common with such high confidence and precision."

When trying to narrow down which exoplanets might harbour life, we look for what we know. And the only planet we know for sure that supports life is our own – Earth. There could be any number of detailed factors that play into our presence here, such as the presence of a moon, or a massive gas giant like Jupiter; but as a starting point, astronomers tend to use just the following three.

Is the exoplanet rocky, like Earth, Mars, and Venus? Does it orbit a star like the Sun, not too hot and not too active with flares that could lash planets with radiation? And does it orbit that star in the not-too-cold-not-too-hot Goldilocks zone, neither so far that any liquid water on the surface would freeze, nor so close that any surface water would evaporate?

One of Kepler's main goals was to help us determine how many exoplanets that fit these three parameters might be out there in the Milky Way galaxy. Bryson and his team used all four years of the original Kepler mission data, from May 2009 to May 2013, to make the best estimate yet of this number.

In that first mission (K2 was the second, extended mission, not included in the team's calculations), Kepler identified 4,034 candidate exoplanets, of which more than 2,300 were later validated. But the space telescope had a harder time spotting smaller, rocky planets than anticipated.

The stars the telescope studied ended up being far more variable in brightness than the Sun, which meant that smaller exoplanetary transits that dim the star's light – the signature Kepler used to identify exoplanet candidates – likely ended up indistinguishable from the stellar variability in many cases, thus missing real planets and also generating false positives. Software called Robovetter corrected for these problems for objects with orbits of less than 500 days, but, the team noted, many habitable exoplanets could have much longer orbits.

So, they derived a method of determining a star's Goldilocks zone based on planet radius and photon flux – the number of photons per second per area unit from the star (derived from data from the Gaia survey) hitting the surface of the hypothetical exoplanet.

"We always knew defining habitability simply in terms of a planet's physical distance from a star, so that it's not too hot or cold, left us making a lot of assumptions," said planetary scientist Ravi Kopparapu of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.

"Gaia's data on stars allowed us to look at these planets and their stars in an entirely new way."

The researchers confined their search to exoplanets between 0.5 and 1.5 times the mass of Earth and stars between 4,800 and 6,300 Kelvin (4,530 to 6,025 degrees Celsius; 8,180 and 10,880 degrees Fahrenheit) in effective temperature (the Sun has an effective temperature of 5,780 Kelvin).

The team found that around half these stars, based on their calculations, should have rocky, Goldilocks-zone exoplanets. That's roughly 300 million stars in the Milky Way, based on our current counts.

Given the restrictions on the stars, that's not the whole picture. Previous estimates of the number of potentially habitable worlds based on Kepler data have come back with much higher numbers. But astrobiologists believe that the closer a system's characteristics are to Earth's and the Sun's, the better the chances of finding a place where life could thrive.

So really drilling down in granular detail is important for ongoing and future searches for potentially habitable worlds.

"Knowing how common different kinds of planets are is extremely valuable for the design of upcoming exoplanet-finding missions," said astronomer Michelle Kunimoto of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

"Surveys aimed at small, potentially habitable planets around Sun-like stars will depend on results like these to maximise their chance of success."

The research will be published in The Astronomical Journal, and is available on arXiv.

#Space | https://sciencespies.com/space/there-could-be-at-least-300-million-potentially-habitable-worlds-in-the-milky-way/

Insects play a key (and also icky role) in decomposition by turning corpses into bones

It's that time of the year when skeletons, skulls, and bones have found their way onto cookies, porches, and storefront windows.

While skeletons are universally considered symbols of death, the process of turning a newly dead animal into a bony skeleton relies on an explosion of life that ushers in the process of decomposition. Much of this transformative process is performed by wriggling, scuttling, scurrying insects.

Through decades of careful observation and experimentation, entomologists have described a five-stage model of decomposition. This model explains how insects, in close collaboration with microorganisms, transform a warm body into a pile of bones while simultaneously recycling carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and numerous other nutrients so that other living things may grow and thrive.

It begins with a corpse

The first stage of decomposition (termed "the fresh stage") occurs between the moment of death and the first signs of bloat. Within this period, there are no outward signs of physical change, but bacteria already living within the carcass begin to digest tissues within the body.

Insects start arriving in the minutes to hours after the animal has died. Most insects colonizing during this initial period are flies from the Calliphoridae (blowflies), Muscidae (house flies), and Sarcophagidae (flesh flies) families.

These early flies seek out prime real estate to deposit their eggs. This is generally limited to the animal's natural cavities (e.g., nostrils or mouth), or within any external injuries (e.g., abrasions). The moisture levels and soft tissue within these areas make an ideal nursery habitat for young maggots to develop.

Bloat, maggots, and methane

Bloat comes next. In this second stage of decomposition, the lack of oxygen within the body begins to favour anaerobic microbes. These bacteria thrive in the absence of oxygen within the body.

As the bacteria begin expelling gases like hydrogen sulphide and methane, the abdomen begins to swell. The carcass begins to darken and smells foul. Because carcasses are an uncommon and short-lived source of nutrients, numerous insects may detect and travel to a carcass from kilometres away.

During the bloating stage, fly eggs hatch, and large quantities of maggots begin to feed on the flesh. At this point, beetles join in on the feeding frenzy. Some beetles, such as carrion beetles, will feed on the nutrient-rich flesh of the carcass.

Predaceous beetles, such as rove beetles and clown beetles, arrive to feed on the maggots.

Maggots work their magic

The third stage is known as "active decay." This stage begins when the carcass starts to slowly deflate, a process akin to a tire pierced by a nail. Larval insects gnaw small holes into the body cavities, allowing gases to escape.

Tissues begin to liquefy, giving the carcass a wet appearance, followed by the release of a putrid odour. By the end of the active decay stage, maggots concentrate their feeding within the chest cavity of the animal. Soon beetles dominate, with huge, huge numbers of rove beetles and clown beetles arriving to chow down on the maggots.

Once most of the flesh has been eaten away, the carcass enters the stage of advanced decay. The putrid odour of the carcass begins to subside, and most maggots leave the carcass to pupate in the underlying soil.

Next, adult dermestid beetles arrive at the carcass and begin laying eggs. Dermestid beetles — small round beetles covered in tiny scales — are scavengers that feed on a variety of dry materials: fur, feathers, dead plants, even carpets!

If they're not familiar to you, perhaps you haven't looked closely enough — a 2016 survey of arthropods in homes detected dermestid beetles in 100 percent of households.

Dermestid beetles finish the job

The final stage of decomposition is known as dry decay. Very few adult flies are attracted to the carcass at this stage. During dry decay, the carcass is reduced to bones, cartilage, dried skin, and hair. By this stage, there is little odour at all.

Larval dermestid beetles continue to clean the skeleton, leaving behind remains that look very similar to a disassembled skeleton. Dermestid beetles are so effective in cleaning bones, in fact, that they are regularly used by museums when preparing skeletons for collection and display.

The little things that run the world

While witnessing this beastly undertaking is not for those with squeamish stomachs, decomposition of animal remains is a fundamental process that cycles nutrients within ecosystems.

Nutrients like carbon (the basis of all life on Earth), phosphorous, and nitrogen, which all living things need to grow, are in limited supply in ecosystems. They must be constantly reused and recycled to ensure the continuation of life.

Following decomposition, the soil beneath the cadaver will contain a high concentration of nutrients relative to the surrounding ecosystem.

However, the nutrients released into the environment don't all stay in soil and plants. Nutrients and energy contained within the dead animal (whether a mouse, raccoon, or crow) are repurposed and repackaged into living, breathing insects.

When these insects complete feeding on a carcass, they disperse into the wider environment where they continue to be productive members of ecosystems.

These very same insects help pollinate our crops (including pumpkins), fill the bellies of insect-eating animals (such as bats), and are crucial to the decomposition of other dead organisms (like rats, toadstools, and snakes).

If you happen to stumble across animal bones this Halloween season, or any other time of the year — take a moment to consider the beastly drama that made this discovery possible.

Paul Manning, Postdoctoral Researcher, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University.

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

#Nature | https://sciencespies.com/nature/insects-play-a-key-and-also-icky-role-in-decomposition-by-turning-corpses-into-bones/

Space industry seeks continued progress on regulatory reform

WASHINGTON — The commercial space industry hopes to continue recent progress in regulatory reform even if there is a new president or a change in party control in Congress after the election.

The last six months have seen two major milestones in government regulation of commercial space activities: the publication of revised commercial remote sensing regulations in May and streamlined launch and licensing rules Oct. 15.

Both sets of regulations were long awaited by much of the commercial space industry, who complained that existing rules added cost and complexity to their activities, or even uncertainty that they would be licensed by the government at all. That was particularly the case in the commercial remote sensing industry, where companies said that getting licenses for some new capabilities was difficult, putting U.S. companies at a disadvantage to competitors in other countries.

Since the publication of the new commercial remote sensing rules, NOAA’s Commercial Remote Sensing Regulatory Affairs (CRSRA) office has shifted existing licenses to the new rules, which have a three-tier approach to oversight depending on how the licensed system’s performance compares to what is available globally.

Most of the licenses have been assigned to Tier 1, with the fewest conditions, said Tahara Dawkins, director of CRSRA, at an Oct. 28 meeting of the Advisory Committee for Commercial Remote Sensing. Processing time for license applications has also dropped, she said, from an average of 65 days in 2019 to 43 days in 2020.

The commercial launch industry is still studying the revised launch regulations. While the document that contained the final rule was 785 pages long, Wayne Monteith, FAA associate administrator for commercial space transportation, said most of that document was a preface discussing how the FAA handed the comments it received on a draft rule. The new regulations are 85% shorter than the existing ones it is replacing, he noted in a panel at the American Astronautical Society’s Wernher von Braun Memorial Symposium Oct. 27.

Companies, though, are still taking their time to review the new regulations. “We need to continue to work with Wayne’s team on the launch and reentry streamlining,” said Eric Stallmer, outgoing president of the Commercial Spaceflight Federation, on that panel. That includes a workshop the FAA will hold Nov. 4–6 where the agency will go through what Monteith called the “nuts and bolts” of the new regulations and how companies can transition from existing regulations to the new ones.

Stallmer, who is leaving the Commercial Spaceflight Federation at the end of October to become an executive vice president at Voyager Space Holdings, outlined other priorities for regulatory reform, both at the FAA and elsewhere in the government. One example he gave was the need for “some updating” of FAA regulations involving spaceports and liability regulations.

Another priority, he said, is developing a “voluntary Article 6 solution” with the Department of Commerce. That’s a reference to a provision in the Outer Space Treaty that requires governments to provide “authorization and continuing supervision” of space activities performed by its nationals. While that is handled by various agencies for commercial launch, remote sensing and communications, it’s less clear what agency is responsible for emerging space activities.

One example of that is satellite servicing. SpaceLogistics, the Northrop Grumman subsidiary that operates the Mission Extension Vehicles developed by the company to extend the life of commercial satellites, discovered that regulatory gap when it sought government approval for its missions. “There was no established regime for satellite servicing missions,” said Joe Anderson, vice president of SpaceLogistics, at the Global Satellite Servicing Forum by the industry group CONFERS Oct. 28.

SpaceLogistics eventually worked out a solution where the FCC would take that Article 6 responsibility, while also getting a NOAA commercial remote sensing license for the camera system on the vehicle. However, a more consolidated licensing regime would be useful, he said. “It would be helpful for U.S. operators to have a single entity to go to for all licensing needs, especially as the spectrum of commercial in space activities expands.”

Stallmer said at the symposium that he hopes that if there is a new administration or change in party control of Congress, they will not seek to roll back changes. He cited in particular the Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015. “If there is a new administration, a new Congress,” he said, “we need to fight off any fundamental changes to that.”

It’s unclear what changes, if any, would come to space regulatory issues should Joe Biden, the Democratic Party nominee, win the presidential election. The Biden campaign has said little about space during the campaign, and the brief discussion of space in the Democratic party platform does not touch upon regulatory issues.

Mary Lynne Dittmar, president and chief executive of the Coalition for Deep Space Exploration, said new regulations will likely need to be tweaked simply based on the experience of companies and agencies working with them. “There really needs to be a feedback loop, because we’ll learn from doing implementation,” she said. “It’s critical that business continues to engage with Congress, regulatory agencies and the trade associations.”

“There’s no regulatory framework that’s perfect,” she added.

#Space | https://sciencespies.com/space/space-industry-seeks-continued-progress-on-regulatory-reform/

Why Did Ancient Egyptian Scribes Use Lead-Based Ink?

When ancient Egyptians put pen to paper—or, more accurately, ink to papyrus—they took steps to ensure that their words would endure, a new study suggests.

As detailed in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, researchers from the University of Copenhagen in Denmark and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France, have found that ancient scribes likely added lead to their inks to help their writing dry.

More than a millennia later, reports Cosmos magazine, 15th-century European Renaissance artists employed lead for similar purposes. According to the London National Gallery, lead-based pigments found in many Old Master paintings are “known to aid the drying of paint films.”

Per a University of Copenhagen statement, the study’s authors analyzed 12 papyrus fragments dated to between 100 and 200 A.D., when Egypt was under Roman control. The team used X-ray microscopy to determine the raw materials used in different inks, as well as the molecular structure of the dried ink affixed to the ancient paper.

Ancient Egyptians began writing with ink—made by burning wood or oil and mixing the resulting concoction with water—around 3200 B.C. Typically, scribes used black, carbon-based ink for the body of text and reserved red ink for headings and other key words in the text, wrote Brooklyn Museum conservator Rachel Danzing in a 2010 blog post. Though black and red inks were most common, shades of blue, green, white and yellow also appear in ancient texts.

Ruins of the city Tebtunis, where the only temple library to survive from ancient Egypt was discovered in the 1900s

(Kim Ryholt / University of Copenhagen)

The researchers write that the Egyptians created red inks with iron-based compounds—most likely ocher or other natural earth pigments. The team also identified the presence of lead; surprisingly, they found no lead white, minium or other compounds that would typically be present in a lead-based pigment.

Instead, the ancient ink’s lead pigments appeared to wrap around the papyrus’ cell walls and iron particles. The resulting effect looked “as if the letters were outlined” in lead, according an ESRF statement. This find indicates that the ancient Egyptians devised a system of adding lead to red and black inks specifically for the purpose of binding the words to paper.

“We think that lead must have been present in a finely ground and maybe in a soluble state and that when applied, big particles stayed in place, whilst the smaller ones ‘diffused’ around them,” says co-author Marine Cotte in the ESRF statement.

The 12 analyzed papyrus fragments are part of the University of Copenhagen’s Papyrus Carlsberg Collection. The documents originated in Tebtunis, the only large-scale institutional library known to have survived from ancient Egyptian times, per the university statement. According to the University of California, Berkley, which holds a large collection of Tebtunis papyri, many of the ancient texts were excavated from Egypt’s Fayum basin in the early 20th century.

Lead author Thomas Christiansen, an Egyptologist at the University of Copenhagen, notes that the fragments were likely created by temple priests. Because ancient Egyptians would have required a significant amount of complex knowledge to craft their inks, Christiansen and his colleagues argue that ink manufacturing probably took place in separate, specialized workshops.

A papyrus fragment of a long astrological treatise from the Tebtunis temple library (left) and X-ray fluorescence maps showing the distribution of iron (red) and lead (blue) in the red letters that write out the ancient Egyptian word for "star" (right)

(ESRF / The Papyrus Carlsberg Collection)

“Judging from the amount of raw materials needed to supply a temple library as the one in Tebtunis, we propose that the priests must have acquired them or overseen their production at specialized workshops, much like the Master Painters from the Renaissance,” says Christiansen in the university statement.

Christiansen and Cotte previously led University of Copenhagen researchers in a similar study that detected copper in black ink found on ancient papyri. The 2017 paper marked the first time the metal was identified as a “literal common element” in ancient Egyptian ink, as Kastalia Medrano reported for Newsweek at the time.

For the earlier study, the researchers analyzed papyrus fragments, also from the Papyrus Carlsberg Collection, that spanned about 300 years but bore significant similarities in chemical makeup. Those similarities across time and geography suggest “that the ancient Egyptians used the same technology for ink production throughout Egypt from roughly 200 B.C. to 100 A.D.,” Christiansen noted in a 2017 statement.

The team behind the new paper hopes to continue studying the molecular composition of pigments, as well as further investigate the innovative techniques that ancient Egyptians devised.

As Cotte says in the ESRF statement, “By applying 21st-century, state-of-the-art technology to reveal the hidden secrets of ancient ink technology, we are contributing to the unveiling [of] the origin of writing practices.”

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